Hey guys! Today, we start, together, a long, beautiful, and enriching journey through the woods of Indian Philosophy. What’s the destination? Moksha, maybe? Hehe, I don’t know. Let’s find out together.

In this article, we will look at the map of Indian Philosophy. What is it exactly? Today, this will be our first step towards becoming friends with Indian Philosophy, “acquaintance”!

We will do our Hi-Hellos with Philosophy and understand the basics to get started.

Meaning of the word “Philosophy”

The word “philosophy” was born in Ancient Greece. It comes from two Greek words:

• φίλος (philos): meaning “love,” “loving,” or “friend.”
• σοφία (sophia): meaning “wisdom” or “knowledge.”

So, the literal meaning of philosophy (φιλοσοφία) is “the love of wisdom” or “the pursuit of wisdom.”

While some sources say pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras (c. 580 BCE) coined this term “Philosophy”, we are not 100% sure yet. But, why do we think that in the first place? Because the concept of a “lover of wisdom” as opposed to a “wise man” (sophist) is often associated with figures like Pythagoras and later Socrates, who claimed, “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.” Being humble despite knowing a lot shows that learning is ongoing, and no one has all the answers.

Earlier, the term “philosophy” had a much broader meaning than it does today. It encompassed nearly all forms of rational inquiry, including what we now consider individual sciences. For example, Isaac Newton’s seminal work on physics was titled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). Over time, as specific fields of study developed their own methodologies and distinct areas of inquiry, they “spun off” from philosophy, becoming separate academic disciplines (e.g., physics, biology, psychology).

In its modern sense, philosophy largely focuses on fundamental questions concerning existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language, often employing rational and critical inquiry to explore these topics.

Meaning of the term “Indian Philosophy”

The term “Indian Philosophy” refers to the diverse and extensive body of philosophical thought that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. It is not limited to any single religious tradition, historical period, or theological stance. Instead, it includes:

“Philosophical speculation of ALL Indian thinkers.“

This is the core of the definition. It includes the intellectual inquiries, logical systems, ethical frameworks, metaphysical theories, and epistemological debates put forth by individuals and schools of thought throughout India’s long history.

“Indian Philosophy” is not synonymous with “Hindu religious philosophy.”

In the past, the word (exonym) “Hindu” was a term outsiders (Persians) used to describe anyone living in the area around and beyond the Indus River – basically, all the people in the Indian subcontinent.

So, when we talk about “Indian philosophy” in this historical and geographical sense, it means all the different ways of thinking and philosophical ideas that came from this region. This includes well-known traditions like Buddhism and Jainism, as well as older materialist philosophies like Charvaka. These schools of thought grew up independently, and sometimes even disagreed with, the Vedic traditions that later became the foundation of what we now call Hinduism.

If we only consider “Indian philosophy” to mean “Hindu philosophy” (in the religious sense), we’d be wrongly leaving out many important and unique intellectual ideas that are a huge part of India’s philosophical history.

Ancient or Modern:

Indian philosophy has a long history, stretching over thousands of years.

It goes way back to ancient times, around 1500 BCE, with the Vedas and the early Upanishads.

Then came the classical period (roughly 500 BCE to 1200 CE), the golden age for major philosophical schools. This is when systems like Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta developed, alongside Buddhism and Jainism.

Even after that, Indian philosophy continued to evolve into modern times. It was shaped by new ideas from the West and by the changes happening in society.

Hindus or Non-Hindus:

Even though a big part of Indian philosophy is connected to what we call Hinduism, we have to remember that it also includes and features philosophical systems that are not Hindu. The most well-known of these non-Hindu schools are:

• Jainism: Based on the teachings of the Tirthankaras, emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), asceticism, and self-control.
• Charvaka (Lokayata): A materialist and atheistic school that rejected the authority of the Vedas, advocated for direct perception as the only source of knowledge, and often held a hedonistic ethical view.
• Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, focusing on suffering, the impermanence of existence, and the path to nirvana.
  • Other less prominent, but still important, ancient schools like Ajivika and Ajnana.

Theists or Atheists:

Indian philosophy is diverse in its stance on the existence of a divine being or beings.

Theistic schools

These include many branches of Vedanta (like Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita), Nyaya, and Yoga (which posits a specific concept of Ishvara or God as an ideal meditator).

Atheistic or nontheistic schools:

Schools of thought that don’t believe in a god, or don’t focus on one, are also important.

For example, Buddhism and Jainism don’t consider a creator God to explain their ideas about right and wrong, or how to achieve spiritual liberation. The Charvaka school was even more direct, clearly stating they were atheistic and believed only in the material world.

Even in some of the “orthodox” Hindu schools (called Astika, meaning they accept the Vedas), like Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa, whether or not a personal God exists is often discussed, given less importance, or even straight-up denied in their main teachings. They might still believe in other supernatural beings or principles, but not necessarily a supreme creator God.

“Indian Philosophy” is a broad term that covers all the different ways of thinking that came from the Indian subcontinent. These traditions tried to understand big questions about the nature of reality, what we can know (knowledge), how to live well (ethics), consciousness, and how to find true freedom (liberation).

It doesn’t matter what religion or beliefs they had. What makes them stand out is their deep thinking about oneself, strong logical arguments, and often a practical goal of helping people live good lives and find ultimate liberation.

Difficulties in the way of studying Indian Philosophy

S.N. Dasgupta, a scholar of Sanskrit and Indian philosophy, has presented some issues in amazing detail that he felt made Indian Philosophy hard to study and less accessible to the masses. I’ve tried to explain them here, in simple words, but I’d encourage you to read the book for a much better understanding.

Limited Accessibility and Translation Issues:

Many ancient Indian philosophical writings, in Sanskrit and Pāli, haven’t been translated. And even the ones that have are very hard to translate. This is because Indian ways of expressing ideas and their specialized philosophical terms are unique and often don’t have exact matches in European languages. So, if one doesn’t know Sanskrit, it’s tough to understand the real meaning from a translation.

Difficulty of Sanskrit Philosophical Literature:

Even if you know Sanskrit, the parts of philosophical texts dealing with logic and deep ideas are hard. Scholars who know the Vedas, Upanishads, and even European philosophy might still struggle to understand advanced Indian logic or complex Vedanta discussions. This is because the ideas are packed into very few words, there are lots of specialized terms, and they often refer to other ideas without explicitly explaining them.

Lack of Proper Explanation for Technical Terms and thus, the need for a Teacher:

Old philosophical books written in Sanskrit assume you already know their special technical words. These words are rarely explained in the books themselves. Back then, students learned these terms directly from their teachers, who had learned them from their teachers. This shows that this knowledge wasn’t meant for everyone, but only for a chosen few who were considered “fit students” or as they called it “Adhikari.”

Inconsistent Use of Technical Terms Across Systems:

The same technical terms can be used with vastly different meanings in different philosophical systems. A student must learn the specific meaning of each term within its context, as dictionaries are of limited help. This requires picking up meanings as one progresses through the literature.

Puzzling Allusions and Refutations of Other Systems:

When philosophers from one school discuss their ideas, they often refer to and argue against the beliefs of other schools in a very complex way. This can be very confusing because a reader can’t be expected to know all the specific beliefs of every other philosophical system. So, it becomes hard to follow their arguments and counter-arguments.

Absence of Comprehensive Introductory Works on Epistemological, Ontological, and Psychological Positions:

There aren’t many short, clear books that explain the main ideas about knowledge (epistemology), reality (ontology), and the mind (psychology) from Indian thinkers. Because these summaries are missing, it’s hard even for skilled Sanskrit scholars to understand more advanced philosophical writings, even if they know many of the technical words.

Where do we find the Indian Philosophy that we study today?

Two major collections/anthologies have given us most of the Philosophy that we study today: –

1. Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha (सर्वदर्शनसंग्रह)

• Author: Traditionally attributed to Mādhavāchārya, a 14th-century Indian scholar often identified with Vidyaranya, the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham. (There’s some scholarly debate regarding the exact authorship, with some suggesting it might be by Cannibhaṭṭa)
• Nature of the Work: The title translates to “A Compendium of All Philosophical Systems.” It is a doxographical work that systematically reviews various philosophical schools prevalent in India at the time of its composition. Mādhavāchārya presents the main tenets of each system and the arguments used by their followers to uphold them.
  (“Doxography” – the practice of compiling and presenting the opinions or doctrines of past philosophers)
• Content: The book typically covers around sixteen philosophical systems, including the Cārvāka (materialist), Buddhist, Jaina, Rāmānuja, Madhva, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and others. Interestingly, while aiming to cover “all” systems, it famously omits a detailed exposition of Advaita Vedānta, stating that the author has explained it elsewhere.
• Perspective: The systems are generally presented from an Advaita Vedānta perspective, often in a “gradually ascending series” culminating (implicitly) in Advaita.
• Significance: It’s a crucial resource for understanding the diverse philosophical landscape of medieval India and provides valuable insights into systems for which original works might be scarce (e.g., the Cārvāka system, which is presented and critiqued in its first chapter, often quoting extensively from original Cārvāka works that are otherwise lost).

2. Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya (षड्दर्शनसमुच्चय)

• Author: Composed by Haribhadra Sūri, a prominent Jain scholar of the 8th century CE. The text specifically mentions Guṇaratna’s commentary on it, which is considered excellent, particularly for understanding Jainism.
• Nature of the Work: The title means “Compendium of Six Philosophies.” It is a concise Sanskrit text that provides an overview and comparison of six specific Indian philosophical systems from a Jain perspective.
• Content: While the exact six systems can vary slightly in emphasis or interpretation, it typically includes the Bauddha (Buddhist), Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Jaiminīya (Mīmāṃsā), and Jaina systems.
• Significance: This work is significant within Jainism as it shows Jain intellectual engagement with contemporary philosophical traditions. It gives us a unique Jain viewpoint on the doctrines of other schools and contributes to understanding the intellectual discourse and polemical interactions among various philosophical traditions in ancient India. Guṇaratna’s commentary further enriches this by sometimes offering “interesting information about other systems, and also supplies us with some short bibliographical notices.”

Why is it important to study Indian Philosophy?

S.N. Dasgupta, in his book “A History of Indian Philosophy,” also emphasizes on the importance of studying Indian Philosophy by rejecting common objections and highlighting the unique nature of its development.

To Correct Misconceptions and Ignorance:

He directly addresses the view of Western scholars, like Professor Frank Thilly, who dismiss Indian thought as merely “mythological and ethical doctrines,” not “thoroughgoing systems of thought.” Studying Indian philosophy directly refutes these “uninformed and untrue beliefs,” demonstrating that India indeed produced sophisticated and systematic philosophical traditions.

To Understand a Rich and Vast Body of Thought:

The text repeatedly emphasizes the “vast” field of Indian philosophy and the “vast literature” existing on each system. Studying it allows for an engagement with this immense intellectual heritage that has developed continuously over centuries.

To Observe Unique Modes of Philosophical Development:

Unlike Western philosophy, where systems often supersede one another, Indian systems “developed side by side” for centuries, becoming “more and more coherent and determinate” through “criticism and conflict.” Studying this offers a distinct model of philosophical evolution.

To Appreciate the Human Mind’s Universal Rationality:

The author notes that despite differences in expression, “striking similarities to many of the modern philosophical doctrines and ideas will doubtless be noticed.” This suggests that studying Indian philosophy reveals common patterns of rational thought across cultures, proving that “the human mind follows more or less the same modes of rational thought.”

To Access Profound Philosophical Doctrines:

While not explicitly detailed in this excerpt, the author hints at the “net value of Indian philosophical development” to be expressed later, and states his conviction that “many of the philosophical doctrines of European philosophy are essentially the same as those found in Indian philosophy.” This implies that Indian philosophy offers profound insights and doctrines relevant to universal philosophical inquiry.

In essence, the author argues that studying Indian philosophy is crucial to set the record straight about its intellectual rigor, explore its unique historical trajectory, and discover its universal insights into the nature of reality and thought.

Origins of Indian Philosophy

The origins of Indian philosophy are deeply rooted in its earliest literary and spiritual traditions, evolving over centuries from rudimentary speculations to highly complex and systematic schools of thought.

Early Inklings in the Vedas (circa 1000 B.C.): The earliest literary source in India is the Vedas, primarily consisting of hymns praising nature deities. While not philosophical in the modern sense, the later parts of the Vedic hymns (around 1000 B.C.) mark the first appearance of intensely interesting philosophical questions, often cosmological in nature, expressed through poetry and imagination.

Speculation in the Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas: Following the Vedic hymns, the Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas, primarily prose works, exhibit two distinct tendencies:

1. Ritualistic Worship: A dominant trend focused on establishing magical forms of ritualistic worship.
2. Speculative Thinking: A feebler, yet unmistakable, tendency towards speculative thinking through crude generalizations. Despite the apparent dominance of ritualism, this speculative vein undeniably existed and developed.

The Foundational Role of the Upaniṣads (500 B.C. to 700 B.C.): The true genesis of profound philosophical thought is found in the Upaniṣads, treatises written in prose and verse. These texts contain a diverse range of philosophical ideas, predominantly monistic or singularistic, but also some pluralistic and dualistic viewpoints. Crucially, the Upaniṣads are not characterized by reasoned statements but rather by “utterances of truths intuitively perceived or felt as unquestionably real and indubitable,” carrying immense force and persuasiveness. Many of the earliest parts of this literature are estimated to be as old as 500 B.C. to 700 B.C.

Emergence of Independent Systems: Following the Upaniṣadic period, several distinct philosophical systems began to solidify:

• Buddhist Philosophy (circa 500 B.C.): Buddhist philosophy commenced with the teachings of the Buddha around 500 B.C. It experienced vigorous development in India, continuing in various forms until approximately the tenth or eleventh century A.D.
• Jaina Philosophy (Pre-Buddhistic): Jaina philosophy is considered to be prior to the Buddha. While it engaged in conflict with Buddhist doctrines in its early days, it did not significantly interact with other Hindu systems. Notably, Jaina thought, despite internal dissensions on dogmas, did not fragment into numerous differing schools as Buddhism did.
• Early Beginnings of Other Hindu Systems (600 B.C. to 100/200 B.C.): The earliest traces of most other orthodox Hindu systems of thought can be found between 600 B.C. and 100 or 200 B.C. These include:
  • Sāṃkhya and Yoga: Originally distinct schools but later regarded as variations of a single system. Some forms of their earliest speculations could be prior to Buddhism.
  • Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika: While Vaiśeṣika might also be pre-Buddhistic, it later became almost indistinguishably mixed with Nyāya.
  • Mīmāṃsā (Pūrva Mīmāṃsā): Early speculations might also predate Buddhism.
  • Vedānta (Uttara Mīmāṃsā): Developed from the Upaniṣads.

Theistic Systems: Some theistic systems also had their beginnings around the time of the Upaniṣads, initially focusing on morality and religion. While early metaphysical theories might have existed, systematic works are not currently available from that period. The Bhagavadgītā is identified as one of their most important early works, renowned for its moral, religious, and metaphysical discussions, though presented in a “loose form” akin to Upaniṣadic poetry rather than a systematic treatise. From the ninth century A.D. onwards, these loose theistic ideas were systematically supplemented by metaphysical theories, giving rise to various Vaiṣṇava philosophical schools, often dualistic and pluralistic. Additionally, Śaiva and Tantra thought also originated in periods as old as the Upaniṣads.

In summary, the beginning of Indian philosophy is a gradual process, moving from nascent cosmological inquiries in the later Vedas to intuitive truths in the Upaniṣads, and subsequently diversifying into distinct, continuously developing philosophical systems like Buddhism, Jainism, and the orthodox Hindu schools, alongside theistic traditions.

General Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

Based on the provided text excerpts, here are the general characteristics of Indian philosophy as outlined by the author:

1. Essentially Spiritual and Practical: Philosophy in India is described as “essentially spiritual.” Its primary aim is not political power or material well-being, but rather the intense spirituality of India, leading to a “higher life.” It is deeply intertwined with morality and religion, serving as a means to achieve spiritual development and a transformed existence. The “spiritual motive dominates life in India,” and philosophy “takes its origin in life, and enters back into life after passing through the schools.” It is not merely an intellectual pursuit but a pragmatic one, seeking to understand the ultimate truths of reality and rebuild life in accordance with those truths.
2. Emphasis on Inner Experience and Intuition: Indian philosophy places significant value on “inward testing and vision,” and insights gained through introspection. Truths are often “intuitively perceived or felt as unquestionably real and indubitable.” The “intimate relation between the truth of philosophy and the daily life of people that makes religion always alive and real” further underscores this experiential dimension. The mind is seen as capable of “telepathy and clairvoyance” and can achieve “unearthly ascertained conditions” through various practices, suggesting an emphasis on altered states of consciousness and direct experience beyond sensory perception.
3. Holistic and Comprehensive Scope: Indian thought is characterized by its “intellectual impetus” to “seek to know the inner truth and the law of all sides of human activity.” It is not confined to specific disciplines like logic, grammar, rhetoric, or language, but extends to encompass medicine, astronomy, art, and even zoology. It aims for an “all comprehensive character of intellectual life,” demonstrating a holistic approach to knowledge and existence.
4. Rational and Systematic, Yet Integrated with Faith and Poetry: While some might mistakenly view Oriental thought as merely mythological or ethical, the text emphasizes that Indian philosophy developed into “thoroughgoing systems of thought.” It possesses a “tendency to conceiving philosophical problems in a clear and unambiguous manner,” and from the ninth century, there was a striking development in using “clear, definite, and precise expressions” and technical terms. Despite this rigor, it is not divorced from “poetry and faith,” maintaining a “peculiar charm more akin to the poetry of the Upaniṣads than to the dialectical and systematic Hindu thought” in certain areas like the Bhagavadgītā. It aims to develop “rational synthesis” of religious and ethical concepts into philosophical propositions.
5. Focus on Liberation and Moral Transformation: The ultimate goal of Indian philosophy is liberation (moksha) and the transformation of life. It delves into the nature of the “individual soul” and its relation to the “universal soul.” The founders of philosophy strove for a “socio-spiritual reformation of the country,” with the Indian civilization being fundamentally a “Brahmanical one,” where the “philosophical thinkers and religious minds” were seen as the truest men. The “supremacy of religion and of social tradition” meant that “the philosophy has not risen beyond the stage of mere theorizing but has always been pressed into service as a part of the daily life.”
6. Non-Dogmatic and Open to Inquiry: Indian philosophy is generally “not dogmatic” in its approach. It encourages inquiry and criticism, allowing for “new conceptions as philosophy progresses.” The philosophical attempt is to determine “the nature of reality” rather than being bound by pre-established dogma, inviting the seeker to “seek the ultimate truth of philosophy.”
7. Emphasis on the Spirit/Mind Over Materialism: Indian thought delves into various states of consciousness—waking, dreaming, and dreamless sleep—and seeks to understand the “true meaning of all modes of consciousness.” It explores “psychology and ethics,” recognizing the mind’s central role and distinguishing it from the “physical body.” This deep psychological inquiry supports a spiritual rather than purely materialistic worldview.
8. Historical Continuity and Evolution: Most systems had “very early beginnings and a continuous course of development through the succeeding centuries,” taught in an “unbroken chain of teachers and pupils.” This shows a tradition of constant refinement and answering new problems within existing doctrinal frameworks.

In summary, Indian philosophy is portrayed as a profoundly spiritual, pragmatic, and holistic intellectual endeavor that seeks ultimate truth through inner experience and rigorous reasoning, aiming for liberation and the transformation of human life, while integrating seamlessly with religious and ethical traditions.